Which stage is named 'Initiative vs. guilt' in Erikson's theory?

• A. Trust vs mistrust
• B. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• C. Industry vs inferiority
• D. Initiative vs. guilt

Answer: (D)

In Erikson’s theory, early childhood is a period when children begin to take initiative—planning activities, making decisions, and leading tasks—while also learning to manage the possibility of guilt if their efforts are met with harsh punishment or over-control. This balance is what the stage named Initiative vs. guilt captures. The positive result is a sense of initiative and purpose; the negative result is guilt and self-doubt about one's desires and actions. For context, trust vs. mistrust applies to infancy, autonomy vs. shame and doubt to toddlers, and industry vs. inferiority to the school-age years.